Preface

46. Having described the dignity of the human person and his and her individual and social role in the universe, the council now draws people's attention, in the light of the gospel and of human experience, to some more urgent problems deeply affecting the human race at the present day.

Of the many problems which are matters of universal concern nowadays, it may be helpful to concentrate on the following: marriage and the family, culture, economic and social life, politics, the solidarity of peoples, and peace. We must seek light for each of these problems from the principles which Christ has given us; in this way the faithful will receive guidance and all people will be enlightened in their search for solutions to so many complex problems.

Chapter I

THE DIGNITY OF MARRIAGE AND THE FAMILY

Marriage and the Family in the Modern World

47. The well-being of the individual person and of both human and Christian society is closely bound up with the healthy state of the community of marriage and the family. Hence, Christians and all who value this community are very pleased to see the various kinds of support which have increased people's esteem for this community of love and their respect for life, and which have also helped married people and parents in their lofty calling. They expect even greater benefits and are endeavouring to achieve them.

However, the dignity of this institution is not so evident everywhere, being obscured by polygamy, the plague of divorce, free love, and similar blemishes; furthermore, married love is too often dishonoured by selfishness, hedonism, and unlawful contraceptive practices. Besides, the economic, social, psychological, and civil climate of today has a severely disruptive effect on family life. There are also the serious and alarming problems arising in many parts of the world as a result of population expansion. On all of these counts an anguish of conscience is being generated. And yet the strength and vigor of the institution of marriage and family shines forth time and again: for the profoundly changing conditions of society today, in spite of the difficulties which they cause, very often reveal in one way or another the true nature of marriage and of the family.

It is for these reasons that the council intends to present certain key points of the church's teaching in a clearer light; and it hopes to guide and encourage Christians and all others who are trying to preserve and to foster the dignity and supremely sacred value of the married state.

Holiness of the Marriage and the Family

48. The intimate partnership of life and the love which constitutes the married state has been established by the creator and endowed by him with its own proper laws; it is rooted in the contract of its partners, that is, in their irrevocable personal consent. It is an institution confirmed by divine law and receiving its stability, in the eyes of society also, from the human act by which the partners mutually surrender themselves to each other; for the good of the partners, of the children, and of society this sacred bond no longer depends on human decision alone. For God himself is the author of marriage and has endowed it with various values and purposes:[1] all of these have a very important bearing on the continuation of the human race, on the personal development and eternal destiny of every member of the family, on the dignity, stability, peace, and prosperity of the family and of the whole human race. By its very nature the institution of marriage and married love are ordered to the procreation and education of the offspring and it is in them that it finds its crowning glory. Thus the man and woman, who "are no longer two but one" (Mt 19:6), help and serve each other by their marriage partnership; they become conscious of their unity and experience it more deeply from day to day. The intimate union of marriage, as a mutual giving of two persons, and the good of the children demand total fidelity from the spouses and require an unbreakable unity between them.[2]

Christ our Lord has abundantly blessed this love, which is rich in its various features, coming as it does from the spring of divine love and modeled on Christ's own union with the church. Just as of old God encountered his people in a covenant of love and fidelity,[3] so our Savior, the spouse of the church,[4] now encounters Christian spouses through the sacrament of marriage. He abides with them in order that by their mutual self-giving spouses will love each other with enduring fidelity, as he loved the church and delivered himself for it.[5] Authentic married love is caught up into divine love and is directed and enriched by the redemptive power of Christ and the salvific action of the church, with the result that the spouses are effectively led to God and are helped and strengthened in their lofty role as fathers and mothers.[6] Spouses, therefore, are fortified and, as it were, consecrated for the duties and dignity of their state by a special sacrament;[7] fulfilling their conjugal and family role by virtue of this sacrament, spouses are penetrated with the spirit of Christ and their whole life is suffused by faith, hope and charity; thus they increasingly further their own perfection and their mutual sanctification, and together they render glory to God.

Inspired by the example and family prayer of their parents, children, and in fact everyone living under the family roof, will more easily set out upon the path of a truly human training, of salvation, and of holiness. As for the spouses, when they are given the dignity and role of fatherhood and motherhood, they will eagerly carry out their duties of education, especially religious education, which primarily devolves on them.

Children as living members of the family contribute in their own way to the sanctification of their parents. With sentiments of gratitude, affection and trust, they will repay their parents for the benefits given to them and will come to their assistance as devoted children in times of hardship and in the loneliness of old age. Widowhood, accepted courageously as a continuation of the calling to marriage, will be honored by all.[8] Families will generously share their spiritual treasures with other families. The Christian family springs from marriage,[9] which is an image and a sharing in the partnership of love between Christ and the church; it will show to all people Christ's living presence in the world and the authentic nature of the church by the love and generous fruitfulness of the spouses, by their unity and fidelity, and by the loving way in which all members of the family cooperate with each other.

Married Love

49. The word of God regularly invites engaged and married couples to nourish and cherish their betrothal with chaste love and their marriage with undivided love.[10] Many of our contemporaries, too, have a high regard for true love between husband and wife as manifested in the worthy customs of various times and peoples. Married love is an eminently human love because it is an affection between two persons rooted in the will and it embraces the good of the whole person; it can enrich the sentiments of the spirit and their physical expression with a unique dignity and ennoble them as the special features and manifestations of the friendship proper to marriage. The Lord, wishing to bestow special gifts of grace and divine love on married love, has restored, perfected, and elevated it. A love like that, bringing together the human and the divine, leads the partners to a free and mutual self-giving, experienced in tenderness and action, and permeating their entire lives;[11] this love is actually developed and increased by its generous exercise. This is a far cry from mere erotic attraction, which is pursued in selfishness and soon fades away in wretchedness.

Married love is uniquely expressed and perfected by the exercise of the acts proper to marriage. Hence the acts in marriage by which the intimate and chaste union of the spouses takes place are noble and honorable; the truly human performance of these acts fosters the self-giving they signify and enriches the spouses in joy and gratitude. Endorsed by mutual fidelity and, above all, consecrated by Christ's sacrament, this love abides faithfully in mind and body in prosperity and adversity and hence excludes both adultery and divorce. The unity of marriage, confirmed by our Lord, is clearly apparent in the equal personal dignity which is accorded to man and wife in mutual and unreserved affection. Outstanding virtue is required for the constant fulfillment of the duties of this Christian calling. Married couples, therefore, strengthened by grace for leading a holy life, will perseveringly practice and will pray for a love that is firm, generous, and ready for sacrifice.

Authentic married love will be held in high esteem, and healthy public opinion will be quick to recognize it, if Christian spouses are noted for faithfulness and harmony in their love, for their concern for the education of their children and if they play their part in a much needed cultural, psychological and social renewal in matters concerning marriage and the family. It is imperative to give suitable instruction to young people and in good time, especially in their own families, concerning the dignity of married love, its function and its exercise; thus trained in chastity they will be able in due course to marry, after an honourable engagement.

The Fruitfulness of Marriage

50. Marriage and married love are by nature ordered to the procreation and education of children. Indeed children are the supreme gift of marriage and greatly contribute to the well-being of the parents themselves. God said: "It is not good that man should be alone" (Gen 2:18), and "from the beginning (God) made them male and female" (Mt 19:4); wishing to associate them in a special way with his own creative work, God blessed man and woman with the words: "Be fruitful and multiply"(Gen 1:28). Without intending to underestimate the other ends of marriage, it must be said that true married love and the family life which flows from it have this end in view: that the spouses would cooperate generously with the love of the Creator and Savior, who through them will in due time increase and enrich his family.

Married couples should see it as their mission to transmit human life and to educate their children; they should realize that they are thereby cooperating with the love of God the Creator and are, in a certain sense, its interpreters. This involves fulfilling their role responsibly as human beings and Christians, judging matters correctly in a spirit of obedient respect for God, reflecting and working together; it also involves taking into consideration their own well-being and the well-being of their children already born or yet to come, being able to read the signs of the times and assess their own situation on the material and spiritual level, and, finally, an estimation of the good of the family, of society, and of the church. It is the married couple themselves who must in the last analysis arrive at these judgments before God. Married people should realize that in their behavior they may not simply follow their own fancy but must be ruled by conscience - and conscience ought to be in accord with the law of God in the teaching authority of the church, which is the authentic interpreter of divine law. For the divine law throws light on the meaning of married love, protects it and leads it to truly human fulfillment. Whenever Christian spouses in a spirit of sacrifice and trust in divine providence[12] carry out their duties of procreation with generous human and Christian responsibility, they glorify the Creator and perfect themselves in Christ. Among the married couples who thus fulfil their God-given mission, special mention should be made of those who after prudent reflection and joint decision courageously undertake the rearing of a large family.[13]

But marriage was not instituted solely for the procreation of children: its nature as an indissoluble covenant between two people and the good of the children demand that the mutual love of the partners be properly expressed, that it should grow and mature. Even in cases where despite the intense desire of the spouses there are no children, marriage still retains its character of being a whole manner and communion of life and preserves its value and indissolubility.

Married Love and Respect for Human Life

51.The council realizes that certain situations in modern life often prevent married people from living their married life harmoniously and that they can sometimes find themselves in a position where the number of children cannot be increased, at least for the time being: in cases like these it is quite difficult to preserve the practice of faithful love and the complete intimacy of their lives. But where the intimacy of married life is broken, it often happens that faithfulness is imperilled and the good of the children suffers: then the education of the children as well as the courage to accept more children are both endangered. Some of the proposed solutions to these problems are shameful and some people have not hesitated to suggest the taking of life: the church wishes to emphasize that there can be no conflict between the divine laws governing the transmission of life and the fostering of authentic married love.

God, the Lord of life, has entrusted to women and men the noble mission of safeguarding life and they must carry it out in a manner worthy of themselves. Life must be protected with the utmost care from the moment of conception: abortion and infanticide are abominable crimes. People's sexuality and the faculty of reproduction wonderfully surpass the endowments of lower forms of life; therefore the acts proper to married life are to be ordered according to authentic human dignity and must be held in the greatest reverence. When it is a question of harmonizing married love with the responsible transmission of life it is not enough to take only the good intention and the evaluation of motives into account: objective criteria must be used, criteria drawn from the nature of the human person and human action, criteria which respect the total meaning of mutual self-giving and human procreation in the context of true love; all this is possible only if the virtue of married chastity is seriously practised. In questions of birth regulation the daughters and sons of the church, faithful to these principles, are forbidden to use methods disapproved of by the teaching authority of the church in its interpretation of the divine law.[14]

Let all be convinced that human life and its transmission are realities whose meaning is not limited by the horizons of this life only: their true evaluation and full meaning can only be understood in reference to our eternal destiny.

Fostering Marriage and the Family: A Duty for All

52. The family is, in a sense, a school for human enrichment. But if it is to achieve the full flowering of its life and mission, it requires an affectionate sharing of souls between the married couple and their commitment to cooperation in the children's upbringing. The father's active presence is very important for the children's education; the mother, too, has a central role in the home, for the children, especially the younger children, depend very much on her; this role must be safeguarded without, however, underrating woman's legitimate social advancement. The education of children should be such that when they grow up they will be able to follow their vocation, including a religious vocation, and choose their state of life fully aware of their responsibility; and if they marry they should be capable of setting up a family in favorable moral, social, and economic circumstances. It is the duty of parents and teachers to guide young people with prudent advice in the establishment of a family; their advice should be willingly listened to, but they should beware of exercising any undue influence, directly or indirectly, to force them into marriage or dictate their choice of partner.

The family is the place where different generations come together and to help one another to grow in wisdom and harmonize the rights of individuals with other demands of social life; as such it constitutes the basis of society. All, therefore, who have influence in the community and in social groups should devote themselves effectively to the welfare of marriage and the family. Civil authority should consider it a sacred duty to acknowledge the true nature of marriage and the family, to protect and support them, to safeguard public morality and promote domestic prosperity. The rights of parents to procreate and educate children in the family must be safeguarded. There should also be welfare legislation and provision of various kinds made for the protection and assistance of those who unfortunately have been deprived of the benefits of family life.

Christians, making the most of the times in which we live[15] and carefully distinguishing the everlasting from the changeable, should actively strive to promote the values of marriage and the family; it can be done by the witness of their own lives and by concerted action along with all people of good will; in this way they will overcome obstacles and make provision for the requirements and the advantages of family life arising at the present day. To this end the Christian instincts of the faithful, a correct moral conscience and the wisdom and skill of persons versed in the sacred sciences will have much to contribute.

Experts in other sciences, particularly biology, medicine, social science and psychology, can help secure the welfare of marriage, the family and people's peace of mind if by pooling their findings they try to clarify thoroughly the different conditions favoring the proper regulation of births.

Priests should be properly trained to deal with family matters and to nurture the vocation of married people in their married and family life by different pastoral means, by the preaching of the word of God, by the liturgy, and other spiritual helps. They should strengthen them sympathetically and patiently in their difficulties and comfort them in charity with a view to the formation of families which are shining examples.

Various organizations, especially family associations, should set out by their programs of instruction and activity to strengthen young people and especially young married people, and to prepare them for family, social, and apostolic life.

Let married people themselves, who are created in the image of the living God and constituted in an authentic personal dignity, be united together in equal affection, agreement of mind and mutual holiness.[16] Thus, in the footsteps of Christ, the principle of life,[17] they will bear witness by their faithful love in the joys and sacrifices of their calling, to that mystery of love which the Lord revealed to the world by his death and resurrection.[18]

Chapter II

PROPER DEVELOPMENT OF CULTURE

Introduction

53. It is a feature of the human person that it can achieve true and full humanity only by means of culture, that is through the cultivation of the goods and values of nature. Whenever, therefore, there is a question of human life, nature and culture are intimately linked together.

The word "culture" in the general sense refers to all those things which go to the refining and developing of humanity's diverse mental and physical endowments. We strive to subdue the earth by our knowledge and labor; we humanize social life both in the family and in the whole civic community through the improvement of customs and institutions; we express through our works the great spiritual experiences and aspirations of humanity through the ages; we communicate and preserve them to be an inspiration for the progress of many people, even of all humanity.

Hence it follows that culture necessarily has historical and social overtones, and the word "culture" often carries with it sociological and ethnological connotations; in this sense one can speak about a plurality of cultures. For different styles of living and different scales of values originate in different ways of using things, of working and self-expression, of practicing religion and of behavior, of establishing laws and juridical institutions, of developing science and the arts and of cultivating beauty. Thus the heritage of its institutions forms the patrimony proper to each human community; thus, too, is created a well defined, historical milieu which envelops the people of every nation and age, and from which they draw the values needed to foster humanity and civilization.

Section 1: Cultural Situation Today

New Forms of Living

54. The circumstances of life today have undergone such profound changes on the social and cultural level that one is entitled to speak of a new age of human history;[1] hence new ways are opened up for the development and diffusion of culture. The factors which have occasioned it have been the tremendous expansion of the natural and human sciences (including social sciences), the increase of technology, and the advances in developing and organizing the media of communication. As a result, modern culture is characterized as follows: the"exact" sciences foster to the highest degree a critical way of judging; recent psychological advances furnish deeper insights into human behavior, historical studies tend to make us view things under the aspects of change and evolution; customs and patterns of life tend to become more uniform from day to day; industrialization, urbanization, and other factors which promote community living create new mass-cultures which give birth to new patterns of thinking, of acting, and of the use of leisure; heightened media of exchange between nations and different branches of society open up the riches of different cultures to each and every individual, with the result that a more universal form of culture is gradually taking shape, and through it the unity of humankind is being fostered and expressed in the measure that the particular characteristics of each culture are preserved.

Humanity, Author of Culture

55. In each nation and social group there is a growing number of men and women who are conscious that they themselves are the architects and molders of their conimunity's culture. All over the world the sense of autonomy and responsibility increases with effects of the greatest importance for the spiritual and moral maturity of humankind. This will become clearer to us if we advert to the unification of the world and the duty imposed on us to build up a better world in truth and justice. We are witnessing the birth of a new humanism, where people are defined before all else by their responsibility to their sisters and brothers and at the court of history.

Difficulties and Duties

56. In circumstances such as these it is no wonder that people feel responsible for the progress of culture and nourish high hopes for it, but anxiously foresee numerous conflicting elements which it is up to them to resolve.

Increased exchanges between cultures ought to lead to genuine and fruitful dialogue between groups and nations. What, however, is to be done to prevent such exchanges from disturbing the life of communities, destroying traditional wisdom and endangering each people's native characteristics?

How is the dynamism and expansion of the new culture to be fostered without forfeiting loyalty to inherited traditions? This question is of particular relevance in a culture where the enormous progress of science and technology must be harmonized with a culture nourished by classical studies from various traditions.

As specialization in different branches of knowledge continues to increase so rapidly, how can the requisite synthesis be worked out between them, not to mention the need to safeguard humanity's powers of contemplation and the wonder which lead to wisdom?

What can be done to enable everyone to share in the benefits of culture, when the culture of specialists is becoming every day more complex and esoteric?

Finally, how are we to accept that culture's claim to autonomy is justified, without falling into a humanism which is purely earthbound and even hostile to religion?

In spite of these conflicting issues human culture must evolve today in such a way that it will develop the whole human person harmoniously and integrally, and will help everyone to fulfil the tasks to which they are called, especially Christians who are united in communion at the heart of the human family.

Section 2: Some Principles of Proper Cultural Development

Faith and Culture

57. In their pilgrimage to the heavenly city Christians are to seek and value the things that are above;[2] this involves not less, but greater comniitment to working with everyone for the establishment of a more human world. Indeed, the mystery of their faith provides Christians with greater incentive and encouragement to fulfil their role more willingly and to assess the significance of activities capable of assigning to human culture its honored role in the complete vocation of humanity.

By the work of our hands or with the help of technology, we till the earth to produce fruit and to make it a dwelling place fit for all of humanity; we also play our part in the life of social groups. In so doing we are realizing God's plan, revealed at the beginning of time, to subdue the earth[3] and perfect the work of creation; at the same time we are perfecting ourselves and observing the command of Christ to devote ourselves to the service of our sisters and brothers.

Furthermore, when we work in the disciplines of philosophy, history, mathematics and science and when we cultivate the arts, we can greatly help humanity to reach a higher understanding of truth, goodness, and beauty, to make judgments of universal value. Humanity will thus be more fully enlightened by the marvellous wisdom, which was with God from eternity, fashioning all things with God, rejoicing in God's inhabited world, and delighting in humanity's sons and daughters.[4] As a consequence the human spirit, freed from the bondage of material things, can be more easily drawn to the worship and contemplation of the creator. Moreover, humanity is disposed to acknowledge, under the impulse of grace, the word of God, who was in the world as "the true light that enlightens everyone" (Jn 1:9), before becoming flesh to save and gather up all things in himself.[5]

There is no doubt that modern scientific and technical progress can lead to a certain phenomenism or agnosticism; this happens when scientific methods of investigation, which of themselves are incapable of penetrating to the deepest nature of things, are unjustifiably taken as the supreme norm for arriving at truth. There is a further danger that in their excessive confidence in modern inventions people may think that they are sufficient unto themselves and abandon the search for higher values.

But these drawbacks are not necessarily due to modern culture and they should not tempt us to overlook its positive values. Among these values we would like to draw attention to the following: study of the sciences and exact fidelity to truth in scientific investigation, the necessity of teamwork in technology, the sense of international solidarity, a growing awareness of the expert's responsibility to help and defend the rest of humanity, and an eagerness to improve the standard of living of everyone, especially of those who are deprived of responsibility or suffer from cultural destitution. All these can afford a certain kind of preparation for the acceptance of the message of the Gospel and can be infused with divine charity by him who came to save the world.

Relations Between Culture and the Good News of Christ

58. There are many links between the message of salvation and culture. In his self-revelation to his people, fully manifesting himself in his incarnate Son, God spoke in the context of the culture proper to each age. Similarly the church has existed through the centuries in varying circumstances and has utilized the resources of different cultures to spread and explain the message of Christ in its preaching, to examine and understand it more deeply, and to express it more perfectly in the liturgy and in the life of the multiform conununity of the faithful.

Nevertheless, the church has been sent to all ages and nations and, therefore, is not tied exclusively and indissolubly to any race or nation, to any one particular way of life, or to any set of customs, ancient or modem. The church is faithful to its traditions and is at the same time conscious of its universal mission; it can, then, enter into communion with different forms of culture, thereby enriching both itself and the cultures themselves.

The good news of Christ continually renews the life and culture of fallen humanity, it combats and removes the error and evil which flow from the everpresent attraction of sin. It never ceases to purify and elevate the morality of peoples. It takes the spiritual qualities and endowments of every age and nation and enriches them with heavenly resources, causes them to bear fruit, as it were, from within; it fortifies, completes and restores them in Christ.[6] In this way the church carries out its mission[7] and in that very act it stimulates and advances human and civil culture, as well as contributing by its activity, including liturgical activity, to humanity's interior freedom.

Proper Harmony Between Forms of Culture

59. For the reasons given above, the church recalls to mind that culture must be subordinated to the integral development of the human person, to the good of the community and of the whole of humanity. Therefore one must aim at encouraging the human spirit to develop its faculties of wonder, of understanding, of contemplation, of forming personal judgments and cultivating a religious, moral and social sense.

Culture, since it flows from humanity's rational and social nature, has continual need of proper freedom of development and a legitimate possibility of autonomy according to its own principles. Quite rightly it demands respect and enjoys a certain inviolability, provided, of course, that the rights of the individual and the community, both particular and universal, are safeguarded within the limits of the common good.

Calling to mind the teaching of the first Vatican council, this sacred synod declares that "there are two orders of knowledge" distinct from one another, faith and reason, and that the church does not forbid "that human arts and sciences have recourse to their own principles and methods in their respective fields;" therefore, "it acknowledges this lawful freedom" and affirms the legitimate autonomy of culture and especially of the sciences.[8]

All this demands that, provided they respect the moral order and the common interest, people should be entitled to seek after truth, to express and make known their opinions, to engage in whatever art they please; and, finally, that they should be accurately informed about matters of public interest.[9]

It is not for the public authority to determine how human culture should develop, but to build up the environment and to provide assistance favorable to such development, without overlooking minorities.[10] This is the reason why one must avoid at all costs the distortion of culture and its exploitation by political or economical forces.

Section 3:

Some More Urgent Duties of Christians in Regard to Culture Recognition
of Everyone's Right to Culture and its Implementation

60. It is now possible to remove from most of the human race the curse of ignorance. A duty most appropriate in our times, especially for Christians, is to work untiringly to the end that fundamental economic and political decisions are taken, nationally and internationally, which will ensure the recognition and implementation everywhere of everyone's right to human and civil culture in harmony with personal dignity, without distinction of race, sex, nation, religion, or social circumstances. Hence it is necessary to ensure that there is a sufficiency of cultural benefits available to everybody, especially the benefit of what is called "basic" culture, lest any be prevented by illiteracy and lack of initiative from contributing in an authentically human way to the common good.

Every effort should be made to provide for those who are capable of it the opportunity to pursue higher studies so that as far as possible they may engage in the functions and services, and play the role in society most in keeping with their talents and the skills they acquire.[11] In this way all the individuals and social groups of a particular people will be able to attain a full development of their cultural life in harmony with their capabilities and their traditions.

We must do everything possible to make everyone aware of their right to culture and their duty to develop themselves culturally and to help their sisters and brothers. Sometimes conditions of life and work are such as to stifle people's cultural activities and take away their appetite for culture. This holds true especially for those living in rural areas and for manual workers who ought to be provided with working conditions conducive to their cultural development. At present women are involved in nearly all spheres of life: they ought to be permitted to play their part fully in ways suited to their nature. It is up to everyone to see to it that women's specific and necessary participation in cultural life be acknowledged and developed.

Cultural Education

61. Nowadays much more than in the past it is difficult to form a synthesis of the arts and of the different branches of knowledge. While, in fact, the volume and diversity of the constituent elements of culture are on the increase, there is a decrease in the individual's capability to perceive and harmonize them, so that the notion of "universal humanity"has almost vanished. Still, it remains each one's duty to safeguard the notion of the human person as a totality in which intellect, will, conscience, sisterhood and brotherhood predominate, since these values were established by the creator and wonderfully restored and elevated by Christ.

Education of this kind has its source and its cradle, as it were, in the family; children in an atmosphere of love learn there more quickly the true scale of values and there, too, approved forms of culture are almost naturally assimilated by the developing minds of adolescents.

There are nowadays many opportunities favorable to the development of a universal culture, thanks especially to the increase in book publication and new techniques of cultural and social communication. Shorter working hours are becoming the general rule everywhere and provide greater opportunities for large numbers of people. This leisure time must be properly employed to refresh the spirit and improve the health of mind and body - by means of voluntary activity and study, by means of travel to broaden and enrich people's minds by learning from others; by means of physical exercise and sport, which help to create harmony of feeling even on the level of the community as well as fostering friendly relations between people of all classes, countries, and races. Christians, therefore, should cooperate in the cultural framework and collective activity characteristic of our times, to humanize them and imbue them with a Christian spirit. All these advantages, however, are insufficient to confer full cultural development, unless they are accompanied by a deeply thought out evaluation of the meaning of culture and knowledge of the human person.

Proper Harmony Between Culture and Christian Formation

62. Although the church has contributed largely to the progress of culture, it is a fact of experience that there have been difficulties in the way of harmonizing culture with Christian thought, arising out of contingent factors. These difficulties do not necessarily harm the life of faith, but can rather stimulate a more precise and deeper understanding of that faith. In fact, recent research and discoveries in the sciences, in history and philosophy bring up new problems which have an important bearing on life itself and demand new scrutiny by theologians. Furthermore, theologians are now being asked, within the methods and limits of theological science, to develop more efficient ways of communicating doctrine to the people of today, for the deposit and the truths of faith are one thing, the manner of expressing them - provided their sense and meaning are retained - is quite another.[12] In pastoral care sufficient use should be made, not only of theological principles, but also of the findings of secular sciences, especially psychology and sociology: in this way the faithful will be brought to a purer and more mature living of the faith.

In their own way literature and art are very important in the life of the church. They seek to penetrate our nature, our problems and experience as we endeavour to discover and perfect ourselves and the world in which we live; they try to discover our place in history and in the universe, to throw light on our suffering and joy, our needs and potentialities, and to outline a happier destiny in store for us. Hence they can elevate human life, which they express under many forms according to various times and places.

Every effort should be made, therefore, to make artists feel that they are understood by the church in their artistic work and to encourage them, while enjoying a reasonable standard of freedom, to enter into happier relations with the Christian community. New art forms adapted to our times and in keeping with the characteristics of different nations and regions should be acknowledged by the church. They may also be brought into the sanctuary whenever they raise the mind to God with suitable forms of expression and in conformity with liturgical requirements.[13] Thus the knowledge of God will be made more widely available; the preaching of the Gospel will be rendered more intelligible and will appear more relevant to people's situations.

Therefore, the faithful ought to work closely with their contemporaries and ought to try to understand their ways of thinking and feeling, as these find expression in current culture. Let the faithful incorporate the findings of new sciences and teachings and the understanding of the most recent discoveries into Christian morality and thought, so that their practice of religion and their moral behavior may keep abreast of their acquaintance with science and of the relentless progress of technology: in this way they will succeed in evaluating and interpreting everything with an authentically Christian sense of values.

Those involved in theological studies in seminaries and universities should be eager to cooperate with people versed in other disciplines by pooling their resources and their points of view. Theological research, while it deepens knowledge of revealed truth, should not lose contact with its own times, so that experts in various fields may be led to a deeper knowledge of the faith. Collaboration of this kind will be beneficial in the formation of sacred ministers; they will be able to present teaching on God, on humanity, and on the world, in a way more suited to our contemporaries, who will then be more ready to accept their word.[14] Furthermore, it is to be hoped that more of the laity will receive adequate theological formation and that some among them will dedicate themselves professionally to these studies and contribute to their advancement. But for the proper exercise of this role, the faithful, both clerical and lay, should be accorded a lawful freedom of inquiry, of thought, and of expression, tempered by humility and courage in whatever branch of study they have specialized.[15]

Chapter III

ECONOMIC AND SOCIAL LIFE

Some Characteristics of Economic Life Today

63. In the sphere of economics and social life, too, the dignity and vocation of the human person as well as the welfare of society as a whole have to be respected and fostered; for people are the source, the focus and the aim of all economic and social life.

Like all other areas of social life, the economy of today is marked by humaiiity's growing dominion over nature, by closer and more developed relationships between individuals, groups and peoples, and by the frequency of state intervention. At the same time increased efficiency in production and improved methods of distribution, of productivity and services have rendered the economy an instrument capable of meeting the increasing needs of the human family.

But the picture is not without its disturbing elements. Many people, especially in economically advanced areas, seem to be dominated by economics; almost all of their personal and social lives are permeated with a kind of economic mentality, and this is true of nations that favor a collective economy as well as of other nations. At the very time when economic progress, provided it is directed and organized in a reasonable and human way, could do so much to reduce social inequalities, it serves all too often only to aggravate them; in some places it even leads to a decline in the situation of the underprivileged and to contempt for the poor. In the midst of huge numbers deprived of the bare necessities of life there are some who live in riches and squander their wealth; and this happens in less developed areas as well. Luxury and misery exist side by side. While a few individuals enjoy almost unlimited freedom of choice, the vast majority have no chance whatever of exercising personal initiative and responsibility, and quite often have to live and work in conditions unworthy of human beings.

Similar economic and social imbalances exist between those engaged in agriculture, industry, and the service industries, and even between different areas of the same country. The growing contrast between the economically more advanced countries and others could well endanger world peace.

Our contemporaries are daily becoming more keenly aware of these discrepancies because they are thoroughly convinced that this unhappy state of affairs can and should be rectified by the greater technical and economic resources available in the world today. To achieve this, considerable reform in economic and social life is required along with a universal change of mentality and of attitude. It was for this reason that the church in the course of centuries has worked out in the light of the Gospel principles of justice and equity demanded by right reason for individual and social life and also for international relations. The council now intends to reiterate these principles in accordance with the situation of the world today and will outline certain guidelines, particularly with reference to the requirements of economic development.[1]

Section 1: Economic Development

Economic Development in the Service of Humanity

64.Today, more than ever before, there is an increase in the production of agricultural and industrial goods and in the number of services available, and this is as it should be in view of the population expansion and growing human needs. Therefore we must encourage technical progress and the spirit of enterprise, the wish to create and improve new enterprises, and we must promote adaptation of the means of production and all serious efforts by people engaged in production - in other words everything which contributes to economic progress. The ultimate and basic purpose of economic production does not consist merely in producing more goods, nor in profit or prestige; economic production is meant to be at the service of humanity in its totality, taking into account people's material needs and the requirements of their intellectual, moral, spiritual, and religious life; it is intended to benefit all individuals and groups of people of whatever race or from whatever part of the world. Therefore, economic activity is to be carried out in accordance with techniques and methods belonging to the moral order,[2] so that God's design for humanity may be carried out.[3]

Economic Development Under Man's Direction

65. Economic development must remain under the people's control; it is not to be left to the judgment of a few individuals or groups possessing too much economic power, nor to the political community alone, nor to a few powerful nations. It is only right that, in matters of general interest, as many people as possible, and, in international relations, all nations, should participate in decision making. It is likewise necessary that the voluntary initiatives of individuals and of free associations should be integrated with state enterprises and organized suitably and harmoniously. Nor should development be left to the almost mechanical evolution of economic activity nor to the decision of public authority. Hence we must denounce as false those doctrines which stand in the way of all reform on the pretext of a false notion of freedom, as well as those which subordinate the basic rights of individuals and of groups to the collective organization of production.[4]

All citizens should remember that they have the right and the duty to contribute according to their ability to the progress of their own community and that this must be recognized by the civil authority. Above all in economically underdeveloped areas, where there is urgent need to exploit all available resources, the common good is seriously endangered by those who hoard their resources unproductively and by those who, apart from the personal right to emigrate, deprive their community of much needed material and spiritual assistance.

An End to Excessive Economic and Social Differences

66. To meet the requirements of justice and equity, every effort must be made, while respecting the rights of individuals and national characteristics, to put an end as soon as possible to the immense economic inequalities which exist in the world, which increase daily and which go hand and hand with individual and social discrimination. Likewise in many areas, in view of the special difficulties of production and marketing in agriculture, rural people must be helped to improve methods of production and marketing, to introduce necessary developments and innovations, and to receive a fair return for their products, lest, as often happens, they remain second-class citizens. Farmers themselves, especially young farmers, ought to set about improving their professional skills, without which the advancement of farming is impossible.[5]

Justice and equity also demand that the sort of mobility which is a necessary feature of developing economies should not be allowed to jeopardize the livelihood of individuals and their families. Every kind of discrimination in wages and working conditions should be avoided in regard to workers who come from other countries or areas and contribute by their work to the economic development of a people or a region. Furthermore, no one, especially public authorities, should treat such workers simply as mere instruments of production, but as persons; they should help them to bring their families with them and to obtain decent housing conditions, and they should try to integrate them into the social life of the country or area to which they have come. However, employment should be found for them so far as possible in their own countries.

Nowadays, when an economy is undergoing change, with the introduction of new forms of industrialization, such as automation, for example, care must be taken to ensure that there is sufficient suitable employment available; opportunities for appropriate technical and professional training should be provided, and safeguards should be put in place to

protect the livelihood and human dignity of those who through age or ill health are seriously disadvantaged.

Section 2:
Some Principles Governing Economic and Social Life as a Whole

Work, Working Conditions, Leisure

67. Human work which is carried out in the production and exchange of goods or in the provision of economic services, surpasses all other elements of economic life, which are only its instruments.

Human work, whether it is done independently or as an employee, proceeds from the human person, who as it were puts a personal seal on the things of nature and reduces them to her or his will. By their work people ordinarily provide for themselves and their family, associate with others as their brothers and sisters, and serve them; they can exercise genuine charity and be partners in the work of bringing God's creation to perfection. Moreover, we believe by faith that through the homage of work offered to God humanity is associated with the redemptive work of Jesus Christ, whose labor with his hands at Nazareth greatly added to the dignity of work. This is the source of every person's duty to work loyally as well as of their right to work; moreover, it is the duty of society to see to it that, in the prevailing circumstances, all citizens have the opportunity of finding employment. Finally, remuneration for work should guarantee to individuals the capacity to provide a dignified livelihood for themselves and their family on the material, social, cultural and spiritual level corresponding to their roles and productivity, having regard to the relevant economic factors in their employment, and the common good.

Since economic activity is, for the most part, the fruit of the collaboration of many, it is unjust and inhuman to organize and direct it in such a way that some of the workers are exploited. But it frequently happens, even today, that workers are almost enslaved by the work they do. So-called laws of economics are no excuse for this. The entire process of productive work, then, must be accommodated to the needs of the human person and the nature of his or her life, with special attention to domestic life, that of mother's of families in particular, always taking sex and age into account. Workers should have the opportunity to develop their talents and their personalities in the very exercise of their work. While devoting their time and energy to the performance of their work with a due sense of responsibility, they should nevertheless be allowed sufficient rest and leisure to cultivate their family, cultural, social and religious life. And they should be given the opportunity to develop those energies and talents, which perhaps are little utilised in their professional work.

Co-Responsibility in Enterprise and in the Economic System as a Whole; Labor Disputes

68. It is persons who associate together in business enterprises, people who are free and autonomous, who have been created in the image of God. Therefore, while taking into account the role of every person concerned - owners, employers, management, and employees - and without diminishing the requisite executive unity, the active participation of everybody in administration is to be encouraged. More often, however, decisions concerning economic and social conditions are made not so much within the business itself as by institutions at a higher level and since it is on these that the future of the employees and their children depends, the employees ought to have a say in decision-making, either in person or through their representatives.

Among the fundamental rights of the individual must be numbered the right of workers to form truly representative union which contribute to the proper structuring of economic life, and also the right to play their part in the activities of such associations without risk of reprisal. Thanks to such organized participation, along with progressive economic and social education, there will be a growing awareness among all people of their role and their responsibility, and, according to the capacity and aptitudes of each one, they will feel that they have an active part to play in the whole task of economic and social development and in the achievement of the common good as a whole.

In the event of economic-social disputes all should strive to arrive at peaceful settlements. The first step is to engage in sincere discussion between all sides; but the strike remains even in today's conditions, a necessary, although an ultimate, instrument for the defence of workers' rights and the satisfaction of their lawful aspirations. As soon as possible, however, avenues should be explored to resume negotiations and effect reconciliation.

Earthly Goods Destined for All

69. God destined the earth and all it contains for all people and nations so that all created things would be shared fairly by all humankind under the guidance of justice tempered by charity.[8] No matter how property is structured in different countries, adapted to their lawful institutions according to various and changing circumstances, we must never lose sight of this universal destination of earthly goods. In their use of things people should regard the external goods they lawfully possess as not just their own but common to others as well, in the sense that they can benefit others as well as themselves.[9] Therefore everyone has the right to possess a sufficient amount of the earth's goods for themselves and their family. This has been the opinion of the Fathers and Doctors of the church, who taught that people are bound to come to the aid of the poor and to do so not merely out of their superfluous goods.[10] Persons in extreme necessity are entitled to take what they need from the riches of others.[11] Faced with a world today where so many people are suffering from want, the council asks individuals and governments to remember the saying of the Fathers: "Feed the people dying of hunger, because if you do not feed them you are killing them,"[12] and it urges them according to their ability to share and dispose of their goods to help others, above all by giving them aid which will enable them to help and develop themselves.

In economically less developed societies, it often happens that the common destination of goods is partly achieved by a system of community customs and traditions which guarantee a minimum of necessities to each one. Certain customs must not be considered sacrosanct if they no longer correspond to modern needs; on the other hand one should not rashly do away with respectable customs which, if they are brought up to date, can still be very useful. In the same way, in economically advanced countries the common destination of goods is achieved through a system of social institutions dealing with insurance and security. Family and social services, especially those providing for culture and education, should be further developed. In setting up these different organizations care must be taken to prevent the citizens from slipping into a kind of passivity vis-a`-vis society, or of irresponsibility in their duty, or of a refusal to do their fair share.

Investment and Money

70. Investment in its turn should be directed to providing employment and ensuring sufficient income for the people of today and of the future. Those responsible for investment and the planning of the economy - individuals, associations, public authorities - must keep these objectives in mind; they must show themselves to be aware of their serious obligation, on the one hand, to ensure that the necessities for living a decent life are available to individuals and to the community as a whole, and, on the other hand, to provide for the future and strike a rightful balance between the needs of present-day consumption, individual and collective, and the requirements of investment for future generations. Always they must keep before their eyes the pressing needs of underdeveloped countries and areas. In fiscal matters they must be careful not to do harm to their own country, or to any other. Care must also be taken that economically weak countries do not unjustly suffer loss from a change in the value of money.

Ownership, Private Property, Large Estates

71. Property and other forms of private ownership of external goods contribute to self-expression and provide people with the opportunity of exercising a role in society and in the economy; it is very important, then, to facilitate access to some ownership of external goods on the part of individuals and communities.

Private property or some form of ownership of external goods affords each person an indispensable zone for personal and family autonomy and ought to be considered an extension of human freedom. Further, in encouraging the exercise of responsibility it provides one of the conditions for civil liberty.[13] Nowadays the forms of such ownership or property are varied and are becoming more diversified with time. In spite of the social security, the rights, and the services guaranteed by society, all these forms of ownership remain a source of security which must not be underestimated. And this applies not only to ownership of material goods but also to the possession of professional skills.

The right to private ownership is not opposed to the various forms of public ownership. But the transfer of goods from private to public ownership may be undertaken only by competent authority in accordance with the demands and within the limits of the common good, and it must be accompanied by adequate compensation. Furthermore, the state has the duty to prevent people from abusing their private property to the detriment of the common good.[14] By its nature private property has a social dimension which is based on the law of the common destination of earthly goods.[15] Whenever the social aspect is forgotten, ownership can often become the object of greed and a source of serious disorder, and its opponents easily find a pretext for calling the right itself into question.

In several economically under-developed areas there exist large, and sometimes very large, rural estates which are either very little cultivated or are left uncultivated as speculative ventures, while the majority of the population are landless or have very small holdings and at the same time it is obvious that there is a pressing need to increase agricultural production. Not infrequently those who are hired as labourers or who farm a portion of the land as tenants receive a wage or income unworthy of a human being; they are deprived of decent living conditions and are exploited by entrepeneurs. They lack all sense of security and live in such a state of personal dependence that almost all chance of exercising initiative and responsibility is closed to them and they are denied any cultural advancement or participation in social and political life. Reforms are called for in these different situations: incomes must be raised, working conditions improved, security in employment assured, and personal incentives to work encouraged; insufficiently cultivated estates should be divided up and given to those who will be able to make them productive. When this happens the necessary resources and equipment must be supplied, especially educational facilities and proper cooperative organizations. However, when the common good calls for expropriation, compensation must be made and is to be calculated according to equity, with all circumstances taken into account.

Economic and Social Activity and the Kingdom of Christ

72. Christians engaged actively in modern economic and social progress and in the struggle for justice and charity must be convinced that they have much to contribute to the prosperity of humanity and to world peace. Let them, as individuals and as a group, give a shining example to others. Endowed with the skill and experience so absolutely necessary for them, let them preserve a proper sense of values in their earthly activity in loyalty to Christ and his Gospel, in order that their lives, individual as well as social, may be inspired by the spirit of the Beatitudes, and in particular by the spirit of poverty.

All who in obedience to Christ seek first the kingdom of God will derive from it a stronger and purer motivation for helping all their brothers and sisters and for accomplishing the task of justice under the inspiration of charity.[16]

Chapter IV

THE POLITICAL COMMUNITY

Modern Public Life

73. In our times profound transformations are to be noticed in the structure and institutions of nations, they are the accompaniment of cultural, economic, and social development. These transformations exercise a deep influence on political life, particularly as regards the rights and duties of the individual, in the exercise of civil liberty and in the achievement of the common good; and they affect the organization of the relations of citizens with each other and with the state.

A clearer awareness of human dignity has given rise in various parts of the world to a movement to establish a politico-juridical order which will provide better protection for the rights of women and men in public life - the right of free assembly and association, for example, the right to express one's opinions and to profess one’s religion privately and publicly. The guarantee of the rights of the person is, indeed, a necessary condition for citizens, individually and collectively, to play an active part in public life and administration.

Linked with cultural, economic, and social progress there is a growing desire among many to assume greater responsibilities in the organization of political life. Many people are becoming more willing to ensure that the rights of minority groups in their country are safeguarded, without overlooking the duties of these minorities towards the political community; there is also an increase in tolerance for others who differ in opinion and religion; at the same time wider cooperation is taking place to enable all citizens, and not just a few privileged individuals, to exercise their rights effectively as persons.

People condemn those political systems which flourish in some parts of the world and which diminish civil and religious liberty, make many people the victims of political passions and crimes, cease to exercise authority in the interests of the common good, but rather in the interests of a particular faction or of the government.

There is no better way to establish political life on a truly human basis than by encouraging an interior sense of justice, of good will and of service to the common good, and by consolidating people's basic convictions as to the true nature of the political community and the aim, proper exercise, and the limits of public authority.

Nature and Purpose of the Political Community

74. Individuals, families, and the various groups which make up the civil community, are aware of their inability to achieve a truly human life by their own unaided efforts; they see the need for a wider community where each one will make a specific contribution to an even broader implementation of the common good.[1] For this reason they set up various forms of political communities. The political community, then, exists for the common good: this is its full justification and meaning and the source of its specific and basic right to exist. The common good embraces the sum total of all those conditions of social life which enable individuals, families, and organizations to achieve complete and effective fulfillment.[2]

The people who go to make up the political community are many and varied; quite rightly, then, they may have widely differing points of view. Therefore, lest the political community be jeopardized because all individuals follow their own opinion, an authority is needed to guide the energies of all towards the common good - not mechanically or despotically, but by acting above all as a moral force based on freedom and a sense of responsibility. It is clear that the political community and public authority are based on human nature, and therefore that they need to belong to an order established by God; nevertheless, the choice of the political regime and the appointment of rulers are left to the free decision of the citizens.[3]

It follows that political authority, either within the political community as such or through organizations representing the state, must be exercised within the limits of the moral order and directed towards the common good, understood in the dynamic sense of the term, according to the juridical order legitimately established or due to be established. Citizens, then, are bound in conscience to obey.[4] Accordingly, the responsibility, the status, and the importance of the rulers of a state are clear.

When citizens are being oppressed by a public authority which oversteps its competence, they should not refuse whatever is objectively demanded of them by the common good; but it is legitimate for them to defend their own rights and those of their fellow citizens against abuses of this authority within the limits of the natural law and the law of the Gospel.

The concrete forms of structure and organization of public authority adopted in political communities will vary according to people's differing characters and historical developments; but their aim should always be the formation of human persons who are cultured, peace-loving, and well disposed towards all, to the benefit of the whole human race.

Participation by All in Public Life

75. It is fully in accord with human nature that politico-juridical structures be devised which will increasingly and without discrimination provide all citizens with effective opportunities to play a free, active part in the establishment of the juridical foundations of the political community, in the administration of public affairs, in determining the aims and the terms of reference of public bodies, and in the election of political leaders.[5] All citizens ought to be aware of their right and duty to promote the common good by casting their votes. The church praises and esteems those who devote themselves to the public good and who take upon themselves the burdens of public office in order to be of service.

If the citizens' cooperation and their sense of responsibility are to produce the favorable results expected of them in the normal course of public life, a system of positive law is required which provides for a suitable division of the functions and organs of public authority and an effective and independent protection of citizens' rights. The rights of all individuals, families, and organizations and their practical implementation must be acknowledged, protected, and fostered,[6] together with the public duties binding on all citizens. Among these duties, it is worth mentioning the obligation to render to the state whatever material and personal services are required for the common good. Governments should take care not to put obstacles in the way of family, cultural or social groups, or of organizations and intermediate institutions, nor to hinder their lawful and constructive activity; rather, they should eagerly seek to promote such orderly activity. Citizens, on the other hand, either individually or in association, should take care not to vest too much power in public authority nor to make untimely and exaggerated demands for favors and subsidies, lessening in this way the responsible role of individuals, families, and social groups.

The growing complexity of modern situations makes it necessary for public authority to intervene more frequently in social, cultural and economic matters in order to achieve conditions more favorable to the free and effective pursuit by citizens and groups of the advancement of people's total well-being. The understanding of the relationship between socialization[7] and personal autonomy and progress will vary according to different areas and the development of peoples. However, if restrictions are imposed temporarily for the common good on the exercise of human rights, these restrictions are to be lifted as soon as possible after the situation has changed. In any case it is inhuman for public authority to fall back on totalitarian methods or dictatorship which violate the rights of persons or social groups.

Citizens should cultivate a generous and loyal spirit of patriotism, but without narrow-mindedness, so that they will always keep in mind the welfare of the entire human family which is formed into one by various kinds of links between races, peoples, and nations.

Christians must be conscious of their specific and proper role in the political community; they should be a shining example by their sense of responsibility and their dedication to the common good; they should show in practice how authority can be reconciled with freedom, personal initiative with solidarity and the needs of the social framework as a whole, and the advantages of unity with the benefits of diversity. They should recognize the legitimacy of differing points of view on the organization of worldly affairs and should show respect for the individual citizens and groups who defend their opinions by legitimate means. Political parties, for their part, must support whatever in their opinion is conducive to the common good, but must never put their own interests before the common good.

So that all citizens will be able to play their part in political affairs, civil and political education is vitally necessary for the population as a whole and for young people in particular, and must be diligently attended to. Those with a talent for the difficult yet noble art of politics,[8] or whose talents in this matter can be developed, should prepare themselves for it, and, setting aside their own convenience and material interests, they should engage in political activity. They must combat injustice and oppression, arbitrary domination and intolerance by individuals or political parties, and they must do so with integrity and wisdom. They must dedicate themselves to the welfare of all in a spirit of sincerity and fairness, of love and of the courage demanded by political life.

The political Community and the Church

76. It is very important, especially in a pluralist society, to have a proper understanding of the relationship between the political community and the church, and to distinguish clearly between the activities of Christians, acting individually or collectively in their own name as citizens guided by the dictates of a Christian conscience, and what they do together with their pastors in the name of the church.

The church, by reason of her role and competence, is not identified with any political community nor is it tied to any political system. It is at once the sign and the safeguard of the transcendental dimension of the human person.

The political community and the church are autonomous and independent of each other in their own fields. They are both at the service of the personal and social vocation of the same individuals, though under different titles. Their service will be more efficient and beneficial to all if both institutions develop better cooperation according to the circumstances of lace and time. For humanity's horizons are not confined to the temporal order; living in human history they retain the fullness of their eternal calling. The church, for its part, being founded on the love of the Redeemer, contributes towards the spread of justice and charity among nations and in the nations themselves. By preaching the truths of the Gospel and clarifying all sectors of human activity through its teaching and the witness of its members, the church respects and encourages the political freedom and responsibility of the citizens.

Since the apostles, their successors with their helpers have been given the task of proclaiming Christ, Savior of the world, to women and men, they rely in their apostolate on the power of God, who often shows forth the force of the Gospel in the weakness of its witnesses. Those who devote themselves to the ministry of God's word should employ the ways and means which are suited to the Gospel, which differ in many respects from those obtaining in the earthly city.

Nevertheless, there are close links between the things of earth and those things in the human condition which transcend the world, and the church utilizes temporal realities as often as its mission requires it. But it does not pin its hopes on privileges accorded to it by civil authority; indeed, it will give up the exercise of certain legitimate rights whenever it becomes clear that their use will compromise the sincerity of its witness, or whenever new circumstances call for a different approach. But at all times and in all places, the church should be genuinely free to preach the faith, to proclaim its teaching about society, to carry out its task among people without hindrance, and to pass moral judgments even in matters relating to politics, whenever the fundamental human rights or the salvation of souls requires it. The means, the only means, it may use are those which are in accord with the Gospel and the welfare of humanity according to the diversity of times and circumstances.

With loyalty to the Gospel in the fulfillment of its mission in the world, the church, whose duty it is to foster and elevate all that is true, all that is good, and all that is beautiful in the human community,[9] consolidates peace between peoples for the glory of God.[10]

ChapterV

FOSTERING OF PEACE
AND ESTABLISHMENT OF A COMMUNITY OF NATIONS

Introduction

77. In our generation, which has been marked by the persistent and severe hardships and anxiety resulting from the ravages of war and the threat of war, the whole human race faces a moment of supreme crisis in its advance towards maturity. Humanity has gradually come closer together and is everywhere more conscious of its own unity; but it will not succeed in accomplishing the task awaiting it, that is, the establishment of a truly human world for all over the entire earth, unless all devote themselves

to the cause of true peace with renewed vigor. Thus the message of the Gospel, which epitomizes the highest ideals and aspirations of humanity, throws a new light in our times when it proclaims that the advocates of peace are blessed "for they shall be called children of God" (Mt 5:9).

Accordingly, the council proposes to set down the true and noble nature of peace, to condemn the savagery of war, and to encourage Christians to cooperate with all in securing a peace based on justice and charity and in promoting the means necessary to attain it, under the help of Christ, author of peace.

Nature of Peace

78. Peace is more than the absence of war: it cannot be reduced to the maintenance of a balance of power between opposing forces nor does it arise out of despotic dominion, but it is appropriately called "the effect of righteousness" (Is 32:17). It is the fruit of that right ordering of things with which the divine founder has invested human society and which must be brought about by humanity in its thirst for an ever more perfect reign of justice. But while the common good of humanity ultimately derives from the eternal law, it depends in the concrete upon circumstances which change with time; consequently, peace will never be achieved once and for all, but must be built up continually. Since, moreover, human nature is weak and wounded by sin, the achievement of peace requires a constant effort to control the passions and unceasing vigilance by lawful authority.

But this is not enough. Peace cannot be achieved on earth unless people’s welfare is safeguarded and people freely and in a spirit of mutual trust share with one another the riches of their minds and their talents. A firm determination to respect the dignity of other individuals and peoples along with the deliberate practice of friendliness are absolutely necessary for the achievement of peace. Accordingly, peace is also the fruit of love, for love goes beyond what justice can achieve.

Peace on earth, which flows from love of one's neighbor, symbolizes and has its origin in the peace of Christ who proceeds from God the Father. Christ, the Word made flesh, the prince of peace, reconciled all men and women to God by the cross, and, restoring the unity of all in one people and one body, he abolished hatred in his own flesh.[1] Having been lifted up through his resurrection he poured forth the Spirit of love into people's hearts. Therefore, all Christians are urged to speak the truth in love (see Eph 4:15) and join with all peace-loving people in pleading for peace and trying to achieve it. In the same spirit, we cannot but express our admirration for all who forgo the use of violence to vindicate their rights and have recourse to those other means of defence which are available to weaker parties, provided it can be done without detriment to the rights and duties of others and of the community.

To the extent that people are sinners, the threat of war hangs over them and will so continue until the coming of Christ; but insofar as they can vanquish sin by coming together in charity, violence itself will be vanquished and they will make these words come true: "They shall beat their swords into ploughshares, and their spears into pruning hooks; nation shall not lift up sword against nation, neither shall they learn war any more"(Is 2:4).

Section 1: Avoidance of War

Curbing the Savagery of War

79. Even though recent wars have wrought immense material and moral havoc on the world, the devastation of battle still rages in some parts of the world. Indeed, now that every kind of weapon produced by modern science is used in war, the savagery of war threatens to lead the combatants to barbarities far surpassing those of former ages. Moreover, the complexity of the modern world and the network of relations between countries means that covert wars can be, prolonged by new, insidious and subversive methods. In many cases terrorist methods are regarded as new ways of waging war.

Faced by this deplorable state of humanity the council wishes to remind people that the natural law of peoples and its universal principles still retain their binding force. The conscience of humanity firmly and ever more emphatically proclaims these principles. Any action which deliberately violates these principles and any order which commands such actions is criminal, and blind obedience cannot excuse those who carry them out. The most infamous among such activities is the rationalised and methodical extermination of an entire race, nation, or ethnic minority. These must be condemned as frightful crimes; and we cannot commend too highly the courage of those who openly and fearlessly resist those who issue orders of this kind.

On the question of warfare, there are various international conventions, signed by many countries, aimed at rendering military action and its consequences less inhuman; they deal with the treatment of wounded and interned prisoners of war and with various related questions. These agreements must be honored; indeed public authorities and specialists in these matters must do all in their power to improve these conventions and thus bring about a better and more effective curbing of the savagery of war. Moreover, it seems just that laws should make humane provision for the case of conscientious objectors who refuse to carry arms, provided they accept some other form of community service.

War, granted, has not ceased to be part of the human scene. As long as the danger of war persists and there is no international authority with the necessary competence and power, governments cannot be denied the right of lawful self-defense, once all peaceful efforts have failed. State leaders and all who share the burdens of public administration have the duty to defend the interests of their people and to conduct such grave matters with a deep sense of responsibility. However, it is one thing to wage a war of self-defense; it is quite a different matter to seek to conquer another nation. The possession of war potential does not justify the use of force for political or military objectives. Nor does the mere fact that war has unfortunately broken out mean that all is fair between the warring parties.

All those who enter the military service in loyalty to their country should look upon themselves as the custodians of the security and freedom of their people; and when they carry out their duty properly, they are contributing to the maintenance of peace.

Total Warfare

80. The proliferation of scientific weapons has immeasurably magnified the horror and wickedness of war. Warfare conducted with such weapons can inflict immense and indiscriminate havoc which goes far beyond the bounds of legitimate defense. Indeed, if the kind of weapons now stocked in the arsenals of the great powers were to be employed to the fullest, the result would be the almost complete reciprocal slaughter of one side by the other, not to speak of the widespread devastation that would follow in the world and the deadly after-effects resulting from the use of such weapons.

All these factors force us to undertake a completely fresh appraisal of war.[2] People of the present generation should realize that they will have to render an account of their warlike behavior; the destiny of generations to come depends largely on the decisions they make today.

With these considerations in mind, the council, endorsing the condenmations of total warfare issued by recent popes,[3] declares: Every act of war directed to the indiscriminate destruction of whole cities or vast areas with their inhabitants is a crime against God and humanity, which merits firm and unequivocal condemnation.

The hazards peculiar to modern warfare consist in the fact that they expose those possessing recently developed weapons to the risk of perpetrating crimes like these and, by an inexorable chain of events, of urging people to even worse acts of atrocity. To obviate the possibility of this happening at any time in the future, the bishops of the world gathered together to implore everyone, especially government leaders and military advisers, to give unceasing consideration to their immense responsibilities before God and before the whole human race.

The Arms Race

81. Undoubtedly, weapons are not built up merely for use in wartime. Since the defensive strength of any nation is thought to depend on its capacity for immediate retaliation, the stockpiling of arms which grows from year to year serves, in a way hitherto unthought of, as a deterrent to potential attackers. Many people look upon this as the most effective way known at the present time for maintaining some sort of peace among nations.

Whatever one may think of this form of deterrent, people are convinced that the arms race, which quite a few countries have entered, is no infallible way of maintaining real peace and that the resulting so-called balance of power is no sure and genuine path to achieving it. Rather than eliminating the causes of war, the arms race serves only to aggravate the position. As long as extravagant sums of money are poured into the development of new weapons, it is impossible to devote adequate aid in tackling the misery which prevails at the present day in the world. Instead of eradicating international conflict once and for all, the contagion is spreading to other parts of the world. New approaches, based on reformed attitudes, will have to be made in order to remove this stumbling block, to free the earth from its pressing anxieties, and give back to the world a genuine peace.

Therefore, we declare once again: the arms race is one of the greatest curses on the human race and the harm it inflicts on the poor is more than can be endured. And there is every reason to fear that if it continues it will bring forth those lethal disasters which are already in preparation. Warned by the possibility of the catastrophes which humanity has created, let us profit by the respite we now enjoy, thanks to the divine favor, to take stock of our responsibilities and find ways of resolving controversies in a manner worthy of human beings. Providence urgently demands of us that we free ourselves from the age-old bondage of war. If we refuse to make this effort, there is no knowing where we will be led on the fatal path we have taken.

Total Outlawing of War: International Action to Prevent War

82. It is our clear duty to spare no effort to achieve the complete outlawing of war by international agreement. This goal, of course, requires the establishment of a universally acknowledged public authority vested with the effective power to ensure security for all, regard for justice, and respect for law. But before this desirable authority can be constituted, it is necessary for existing international bodies to devote themselves resolutely to the discovery of better means of achieving common security. But since peace must be born of mutual trust between peoples instead of being forced on nations through dread of arms, all must work to put an end to the arms race and make a real beginning of disarmament, not unilaterally indeed but at an equal rate on all sides, on the basis of agreements and backed up by genuine and effective guarantees.[4]

In the meantime, one must not underestimate the efforts already made or now under way to eliminate the danger of war. On the contrary, support should be given to the good will of numerous individuals who are making every effort to eliminate the havoc of war; those people, although burdened by the weighty responsibilities of their high office, are motivated by a consciousness of their.very grave obligations, even though they cannot ignore the complexity of the present situation. We must beseech the Lord to give them the strength to tackle with perseverance and carry out with courage this task of supreme love for humanity which is the resolute building up of a lasting peace. In our day, this work demands that they enlarge their thoughts and their spirit beyond the confines of their own country, that they put aside nationalistic selfishness and ambitions to dominate other nations, and that they cultivate deep reverence for the whole of humanity which is painstakingly advancing towards greater maturity.

The problems of peace and disarmament have been examined carefully and ceaselessly and there have been international conferences on the subject; these are to be considered the first steps towards the solution of such important questions and must be further pursued with even greater insistence, with a view to obtaining concrete results in the future. But people should beware of leaving these problems to a few people while being unconcerned about their own attitudes. Governments, who are at once the guardians of their own people and the promoters of the welfare of the whole world, rely to a large extent on public opinion and public attitudes. Their peace-making efforts will be in vain, as long as people are divided and at odds with each other because of hostility, contempt and distrust, or because of racial hatred and ideological obduracy. Hence there is a very urgent need for re-education and a new orientation of pubhc opinion. Those engaged in the work of education, especially education of youth, and the people who mold public opinion, should regard it as their most important task to instill peaceful sentiments in people's minds. Every one of us needs a change of heart; we must set our gaze on the whole world and look to those tasks we can all perform together in order to bring about the betterment of our race.

But let us not be buoyed up with false hope. For unless animosity and hatred are put aside, and firm, honest agreements about world peace are concluded, humanity may, in spite of the wonders of modern science, go from the grave crisis of the present day to that dismal hour, when the only peace it will experience will be the dread peace of death. The church, however, living with these anxieties, even as it makes these statements, has not lost hope. It intends to propose to our age over and over again, in season and out of season, the apostle's message: "Behold, now is the acceptable time" for a change of heart; "behold, now is the day of salvation."[5]

Section 2: Establishment of an International Community

Causes of Discord: Remedies

83. If peace is to be established, the first condition is to root out those causes of discord between people which lead to wars, especially injustice. Much discord is caused by excessive economic inequalities and by delays in correcting them. Other causes are a desire for power and contempt for people, and at a deeper level, envy, distrust, pride, and other selfish passions. People cannot put up with such an amount of disorder; the result is that, even in the absence of war, the world is constantly beset by strife and violence. Similar evils bedevil relations between nations. If these are to be remedied or prevented and if unlimited recourse to violence is to be restrained, it is of the greatest importance that international bodies work more effectively and more resolutely to coordinate their efforts. And finally, people should work unsparingly to set up bodies to promote peace.

The Community of Nations and International Organizations

84. Close ties of dependence between individuals and peoples are on the increase world-wide nowadays; consequently, to facilitate effective and successful work for the universal common good the community of nations needs to establish an order suited to its present responsibilities, especially its obligations towards the many areas of the world where intolerable want still prevails. To reach this goal, organizations of the international community, for their part, should set about providing for people's various needs both in the areas of social life covering food, hygiene, education and employment and, in certain particular situations here and there, seeing to the welfare of developing countries, to alleviate the miseries of refugees dispersed throughout the world, and to assist migrants and their families.

Existing international and regional organizations certainly deserve well of the human race. They represent the first attempts to lay the foundations on an international level for a community of all of humanity to try to solve the very serious problems of our times, and specifically to encourage progress everywhere and to prevent all wars. The church is glad to view the spirit of true community existing in all spheres between Christians and non-Christians as it seeks to intensify its untiring efforts to alleviate human misery.

International Cooperation in Economic Matters

85. The present solidarity of humanity calls for greater international cooperation in economic matters. Indeed, although nearly all peoples have achieved political independence, they are far from being free from excessive inequalities and from undue dependency and far from being immune to serious internal difficulties.

The development of a nation depends on human and financial resources. The citizens of every nation must be prepared by education and professional training to undertake the various tasks of economic and social life. This involves the help of experts from abroad, who, while they are the bearers of assistance, should not behave as overlords but as helpers and fellow workers. Material aid for developing nations win not be forthcoming unless there is a profound change in the prevailing conventions of commerce today. Other forms of aid from affluent nations should take the form of grants, loans, or investments; they should be given in a spirit of generosity and without greed on one side, and accepted with complete honesty on the other.

The establishment of an authentic economic order on a worldwide scale can come about only by abolishing profiteering, nationalistic ambitions, desire for political domination,, schemes of military strategy, and intrigues for spreading and imposing ideologies. Different economic and social systems have been suggested; it is to be hoped that experts will find in them a common basis for a just world commerce; it will come about if all people forgo their own prejudices and show themselves ready to enter into sincere dialogue.

Some Useful Norms

86. The following nonns seem useful for such cooperation:

(a) Developing nations should be firmly convinced that their express and unequivocal aim is the total human development of their citizens. They should not forget that progress has its roots and its strength before all else in the work and talent of their citizens. They should not forget that progress is based, not only on foreign aid, but on the full exploitation of native resources and on the development of their own talents and traditions. Those who are in positions of influence should give outstanding example in this matter.

(b) The most important task of the affluent nations is to help developing nations to meet their obhgations. Accordingly, they should undertake within their own confines the spiritual and material adjustments which are needed for the establishment of worldwide cooperation. They should look to the welfare of the weaker and poorer nations in business dealings with them, for the revenues the latter make from the sale of home-produced goods are needed for their own support.

(c) It is for the international community to coordinate and stimulate development, but in such a way as to distribute with the maximum fairness and efficiency the resources set aside for this purpose It is also its task to organize economic affairs on a world scale, without transgressing the principle of subsidiarity, so that business will be conducted according to the norms of justice. Organizations should be set up to promote and regulate international commerce, especially with less developed nations, in order to compensate for losses resulting from excessive inequality of power between nations. This kind of organization accompanied by technical, cultural, and financial aid, should provide developing nations with all that is necessary for them to achieve adequate economic success.

(d) In many instances there is a pressing need to reassess economic and social structures, but caution is called for with regard to proposed solutions which may be untimely, especially those which offer material advantage while militating against people's spiritual nature and advancement. For "one does not live on bread alone but on every word that comes from the mouth of God" (Mt 4:4). Every branch of the human race possesses in itself and in its nobler traditions some part of the spiritual treasure which God has entrusted to humanity, even though many do not know its source.

87. International cooperation is vitally necessary in the case of those peoples who very often in the midst of many difficulties are faced with the special problems arising out of rapid increases in population. There is a pressing need to harness the full and willing cooperation of all, particularly of the richer countries, in order to explore how the necessary food and education can be furnished and shared with the entire human community. Some peoples could improve their standard of living considerably if they were properly trained to substitute new techniques of agricultural production for antiquated methods and adapt them prudently to their own situation. The social order would also be improved and a fairer distribution of land ownership would be assured.

A government has, assuredly, in the matter of the population of its country, its own rights and duties, within the limits of its proper competence, for instance as regards social and family legislation, the migration of country-dwellers to the city, and information concerning the state and needs of the nation. Nowadays some people are gravely disturbed by this problem; it is to be hoped that there will be catholic experts in these matters, particularly in universities, who will diligently study the problems and pursue their researches further.

Since there is a widespread opinion that the population expansion of the world, or at least of some particular countries, should be kept in check by all possible means and by every kind of intervention by public authority, the council exhorts all people to beware of solutions, whether advocated publicly or privately or imposed at any time, which transgress the natural law. Because in virtue of the inalienable right to marriage and the procreation of children, the decision regarding the number of children depends on the judgment of the parents and is in no way to be left to the public authority. Since the parents' judgment presupposes a properly formed conscience, it is of great importance that all should have an opportunity to cultivate a genuinely human sense of responsibility which will take account of the circumstances of time and place and will respect the divine law; to attain this goal a change for the better must take place in educational and social conditions. Above all, religious formation, or at least full moral training, must be available. People should be discreetly informed of scientific advances in research into methods of birth regulation, whenever the value of these methods has been thoroughly proved and their conformity with the moral order established.

Role of Christians in International Aid

88. Christians should willingly and wholeheartedly support the establishment of an international order that includes a genuine respect for legitimate freedom and amity towards all. It is all the more urgent, now that the greater part of the world is in such poverty: it is as if Christ himself were appealing to the charity of his followers through the mouths of these poor people. Let us not be guilty of the scandal whereby some nations, most of whose citizens bear the name of Christians, enjoy an abundance of riches, while others lack the necessities of life and suffer from hunger, disease, and all kinds of misery. For the spirit of poverty and charity is the glory and witness of the church of Christ.

We must praise and assist those Christians, especially those young Christians, who volunteer their services to help other individuals and nations. Indeed it is the duty of the entire people of God, following the teaching and example of the bishops, to alleviate the hardships of our times within the limits of its means, giving generously, as was the ancient custom of the church, not merely out of what is superfluous but also out of necessities.

Without being rigid and altogether uniform in the matter, methods of collection and distribution of aid should be systematically conducted in dioceses, nations, and throughout the world and in collaboration with suitable institutes.

Effective Presence of the Church in the International Community

89. The church, in preaching the Gospel to everyone and dispensing the treasures of grace in accordance with its divine mission, makes a contribution to the consolidation of peace over the whole world and helps to strengthen the foundations of communion among people and nations. This it does by imparting knowledge of the divine and the natural law. Accordingly, the church ought to be present in the community of peoples, to foster and stimulate cooperation among them; motivated by the sole desire of being of service to all, it contributes both through official channels and through the full and sincere collaboration of all Christians. This goal will be more effectively achieved if all the faithful are conscious of their responsibility as people and as Christians and work in their own environments to stimulate generous cooperation with the international community. In their religious and civil education special attention should be given to the training of youth in this matter.

Role of Christians in International Organizations

90. An outstanding example of international activity on the part of Christians is their contribution, either individually or collectively, to organizations set up or on the way to being set up to foster cooperation between nations. Dffferent catholic international bodies can assist the community of nations on the way to peace, sisterhood and brotherhood; these bodies should be strengthened by increasing the number of their trained members, by increasing the subsidies they need so badly, and by suitable coordination of their forces. Nowadays, efficiency of action and the need for dialogue call for concerted effort. Organizations of this kind, moreover, contribute more than a little to the instilling of a feeling of universality, which is certainly appropriate for Catholics, and to the formation of truly worldwide solidarity and responsibility.

Finally, it is to be hoped that, in order to fulfil their role in the international community properly, Catholics will seek to cooperate actively and positively with our separated sisters and brothers, who profess the charity of the Gospel along with us, and also with all who long for true peace.

Taking into account the immensity of the hardships which still afflict a large part of humanity, and with a view to fostering everywhere the justice and love of Christ for the poor, the council suggests that it would be most opportune to create some organization of the universal church whose task it would be to encourage the catholic community to promote the progress in areas which are in want and foster social justice between nations.

CONCLUSION

ROLE OF INDIVIDUAL CHRISTIANS
AND OF LOCAL CHURCHES

91. Drawn from the treasury of the church's teachings, the proposals of this council are intended for all people, whether they believe in God or whether they do not explicitly acknowledge God; they are intended to help them to a keener awareness of their own destiny, to fashion a world better suited to the surpassing dignity of humanity, to strive for a more deeply rooted sense of universal sisterhood and brotherhood, and to meet the pressing appeals of our times with a generous and common effort of love.

Faced with the wide variety of situations and forms of human culture in the world, this conciliar program is deliberately general on many points; indeed, while the teaching presented is that already accepted in the church, it will have to be pursued further and amplified because it often deals with matters which are subject to continual development. Still, we have based our proposals on the word of God and the spirit of the Gospel. Hence we entertain the hope that many of our suggestions will succeed in effectively assisting all people, especially after they have been adapted to different nations and mentalities and put into practice by the faithful under the direction of their pastors.

Dialogue

92. In virtue of its mission to enlighten the whole world with the message of the Gospel and to gather together in one spirit all women and men of every nation, race and culture, the church shows itself as a sign of that amity which renders possible sincere dialogue and strengthens it. Such a mission requires us first of all to create in the church itself mutual esteem, reverence and harmony, and to acknowledge all legitimate diversity; in this way all who constitute the one people of God will be able to engage in ever more fruitful dialogue, whether they are pastors or other members of the faithful. For the ties which unite the faithful together are stronger than those which separate them: let there be unity in what is necessary, freedom in what is doubtful, and charity in everything.[1]

At the same time our thoughts go out to those brothers and sisters and those communities who are not yet living in full communion with us; yet we are united by our worship of the Father, the Son, and the holy Spirit and the bonds of love. We are also mindful that the unity of Christians is today awaited and desired by many non-believers. For the more this unity is realized in truth and charity under the powerful impulse of the holy Spirit, the more will it be a harbinger of unity and peace throughout the whole world. Let us, then, join our forces, in ways more suitable and effective today for achieving this lofty goal, and let us pattern ourselves daily more and more after the spirit of the Gospel and work together in a spirit of brotherhood and sisterhood to serve the human family which has been called to become in Christ Jesus the family of the children of God.

Our thoughts also go out to all who acknowledge God and who preserve precious religious and human elements in their traditions; it is our hope that frank dialogue will spur us all on to receive the impulses of the Spirit with fidelity and act upon them with alacrity.

For our part, our eagerness for such dialogue, conducted with appropriate discretion and leading to truth by way of love alone, excludes nobody; we would like to include those who respect outstanding human values without realizing who the author of those values is, as well as those who oppose the church and persecute it in various ways. Since God the Father is the beginning and the end of all things, we are all called to be brothers and sisters; we ought to work together without violence and without deceit to build up the world in a spirit of genuine peace.

A World to be Built Up and Brought to Fulfillment

93. Mindful of the words of the Lord: "By this all will know that you are my disciples, if you have love for one another"(Jn. 13:35), Christians can yearn for, nothing more ardently than to serve the people of this age successfully with increasing generosity. Holding loyally to the Gospel, enriched by its resources, and joining forces with all who love and practice justice, they have shouldered a weighty task here on earth and they must render an account of it to him who will judge all people on the last day. Not everyone who says "Lord, Lord," will enter the kingdom of heaven, but those who do the will of the Father[2] and who courageously set to work. It is the Father's will that we should recognize Christ our brother in the persons of all men and women and should love them with an active love, in word and in deed, thus bearing witness to the truth; and it is his will that we should share with others the mystery of his heavenly love. In this way people all over the world will awaken to a lively hope, the gift of the holy Spirit, that they will one day be admitted to the haven of surpassing peace and happiness in their homeland radiant with the glory of the Lord.

"Now to him who by the power at work within us is able to do far more abundantly than all that we ask or think, to him be glory in the church and in Christ Jesus to all generations, for ever and ever. Amen" (Eph 3:20-21).

Endnotes to Part Two

Part Two: Chapter I

l. St Augustine, De bono coniugii: PL 40, 375-376 and 394; St Thomas Aquinas, Summa Theologiae, Suppi. Quaest, 49, art. 3 ad I; Decretum pro Armenis: Denz. 702 (1327); Pius XI, Encyclical Casti Connubii: AAS 22 (1930), pp. 543-545; Denz. 2227-2238 (3703-3714).
2. See Pius XI, Encyclical Casti Connubii: AAS 22 (1930), pp. 546-7: Denz, 2231 (3706).
3. See Hos 2; Jer 3:6-13; Ezek 16 and 23; Is 54
4. See Mt 9:15; Mk 2:19-20; Lk 5:34-35, Jn 3:29; 2 Cor 11:2; Eph 5:27; Apoc 19:7-8; 21:2 and 9.
5. See Eph 5 25.
6. See Vatican Council II, Dogmatic Constitution on the Church, Lumen gentium, 11-12,34-36,41.
7. See Pius XI, Encyclical Casti Connubii: AAS 22 (1930), p. 583.
8. See 1 Tim 5:3.
9. See Eph 5:32.
10. See Gen 2:22-24; Prov 5:18-20; 31:10-31; Tob 8:4-8; Cant1:1-3-2:16- 7:8-11;
1 Cor 7:3-6; Eph 5:25-33.
11. See Pius XI, Encyclical Casti Connubii: AAS 22 (1930), pp. 547 and 548; Denz. 2232 (3707).
12. See I Cor 7:5.
13. See Pius XII, Allocution, Tra le visite, 20 Jan. 1958: AAS 50 (1958), p. 91.
14. See Pius XI, Encyclical Casti Connubii: AAS 22 (1930), pp. 559-561; Denz. 2239-2241 (3716-3718); Pius XII, Allocution to the Congress of Italian Mdwives, 29 Oct. 1951: AAS 43 (1951), pp. 83554, Paul VI, Allocution to the Cardinals, 23 June 1964: AAS 56 (1964), pp. 581-9. [By order of Pope Paul VI, a special commission was appointed to study the question of the regulation of births. When it had completed its report, Pope Paul VI issued the encyclical letter 'On the Regulation of Births', Humanae Vitae, 25 July, 1968, text in Vatican Collection vol 2, pp. 397-416. See also 'Declaration on Procured Abortion', Questio de abortu, op. cit., pp 441-53, 'The Christian Family in the Modern World', Familiaris consortio, 22 November, 1981, op. cit. pp. 815-898. Ed.]
15. See Eph 5:16; Col 4:5.
16. See Sacramentarium Gregoianum: PL 78, 262.
17. See Rom 5:15 and 18; 6:5-11 Gal 2:20.
18. See Eph 5:25-27. 

Part Two: Chapter II

1. See the Introduction to this Constitution, nn. 4-10.
2. See Col 3:1-2.
3. See Gen 1:28.
4. See Prov 8:30-31.
5. See St Irenaeus, Adv. Haer., III, 11, 8: ed. Sagnard, p. 200; see ibid., 16, 6, pp. 290-292; 21, 10-22, pp. 370-372; 22, 3, p. 378; etc.
6. See Eph 1:10.
7. See words of Pius XI to Mgr. M. D. Roland-Gosselin "One must never lose sight of the fact that the church's objective is to evangelize, not to civilize. If it does civilize, it is done through evangelizing" (Semaines sociales de France, Versailles, 1936, pp. 461-462).
8.Vatican Council I, Dogmatic Constitution on the Catholic Faith, Dei filius, ch. IV. Denz., 1795, 1799 (3015, 3019). See Pius XI, Encyclical Quadragesimo Anno: AAS 23 (l931), p. 190.
9. See John XXIII, Encyclical Pacem in Terris: 55 (1963), P. 260.
10. See John SSIII, Encyclical Pacem in Terris: AAS 55 (1963), p.283; Pius XII, radio message, 24 Dec. 1941: ASS 34 (1942), pp. 16-17. 11. See John XXIII, Encyclical Pacem in Terris: AAS 55 (1963),p. 260.
12. See John XXIII, Speech delivered at the opening of the council: AAS 54 (1962), p.792 13.See Constitution on the Sacred Liturgy, Sacrosanctum Concilium n. 123; Paul VI, Address to Roman Artists, 7 May 1964: AAS 56 (1964), pp. 439-442.
14. See Vatican Council II, Decree on Priestly Formation, Optatam Totius, and on Christian Education, Gravissimum Educationis.
15. See Vatican Council II, Dogmatic Constitution on the Church, Lumen gentium, ch. 4, n. 37.

Part Two: Chapter III

1. Pius XII, Message, 23 March 1952: AAS 44 (1952), p. 273; John XXIII, Allocution to the Italian Catholic Workers Association, 1 May 1959: AAS 51 (1959), p. 358.
2. Pius XI, Encyclical Quadragesimo Anno: AAS 23 (1931), p. 190
ff.; Pius XII, Message, 23 March 1952: AAS 44 (1952), p. 276 ff.; John XXIII, Encyclical Mater et Magistra: AAS 53 (1961), p. 450; Vatican Council 11, Decree on the Mass Media, Inter Mirifica, ch. 1, n. 6.
3. See Mt 16:26; Lk 16:1-31; Col 3:17.
4.See Leo XIII, Encyclical Libertas Praestantissimum, 20 June 1888: AAS 20 (1887-1888), p. 597 ff.; Pius XI, Encyclical Quadragesimo Anno: AAS 23 (1931), p. 191 ff., Pius XI, Encyclical Divini Redemptoris:AAS 29 (1937), p. 65 ff.; Pius XII, Christmas Message, 1941:AAS 34 (1942), p. 10 ff.; John XXIII, Encyclical Mater et Magistra: AAS 53 (1961). pp. 401-464.
5. For the problem of agriculture see especially John XXIII, Encyclical Mater et Magistra: AAS 53 (1961), p. 341 ff.
6. See Leo XIII, Encyclical Rerum Novarum: AAS 23 (1890-1891), pp. 649-662; Pius XI, Encyclical Quadragesimo Anno: AAS 23 (1931), p. 200; Pius XI, Encyclical Divini Redemptoris: AAS 29 (1937), p. 92; Pius XII, Christmas Message, 1942: AAS 35 (1943) p. 20; Pius XII, Radio Message to Spanish workers, 11 March 1951: AAS 43 (1951), p.215; John XXIII, Encyclical Mater et Magistra: AAS 53 (1961), p.419.
7. See John XXIII Encyclical Mater et Magistra: AAS 53 (1961), pp. 408, 424, 427; the word "curatione" used in the original text is taken from the Latin version of the Encyclical Quadragesimo Anno: AAS 23 (1931), p. 199. For the evolution of the question see also: Pius XII, Allocution, 3 June 1950: AAS 42 (1950), pp. 484-8; Paul VI, Allocution, 8 June 1964: AAS 56 (1964), pp. 574-9.
8. See Pius XII, Encyclical Sertum Laetitiae. AAS 31 (1939), p. 642; John XXIII, Consistorial Allocution: AAS 52 (1960), pp. 5-11; John XXIII, Encyclical Mater et Magistra: AAS 53 (1961), p. 411.
9. See St Thomas Aqu